The Theory of Attributions Essay -- Psychology

Attributions are referred to as the causes of behaviour, and these can be viewed as dispositional or situational. Constructing attributions allows an understanding of others. This allows us to make judgments, which in turn allow us to form an impression of an individual, which will either promote or inhibit our interaction with that individual. Attribution is an important aspect of human behaviour, as it allows predications to be made with respect to forthcoming actions. Attribution explains human causal reasoning i.e. the idea that observed behaviour can be explained as being the result of a specific cause; there is an explanation or a reason behind all observed behaviour. Attribution theorists not only focus on the actual causes of behaviour, but also upon the perceived causes too. The psychology discipline has conducted extensive research into attribution. Kelly and Michela (1980), reported over 900 attribution studies which were conducted in the 1970’s. There are many Attribution theories that aim to unravel the causes of human reasoning. The three main theories to be discussed in this essay are Heider (1958), Kelley (1967) and Jones and Davis (1956). Attributions are referred to as the causes of behaviour; these can be viewed as dispositional or situational. The Construction of attributions allows an understanding of others. This also assists make judgments which in turn allow us to form an impression of an individual, which will either promote or inhibit our interaction with the individual. Attribution is an important aspect of human behaviour, as this allows a predication of forthcoming actions. Human causal reasoning is the idea that behaviour observed can be explained by a cause; there is an explanation or a re... ...rey & Felman 1991;Wilkening &Lamsful 1993). Gigerenzer (1991) suggests humans use â€Å"tools† and methods similar to those used by scientists. These theories have been useful as they have been used as a foundation to develop more current improved theories. Social Psychology continues to advance therefore the research needs to be updated to the society we live in. The traditional attribution theories can be useful to the modern world but do not necessarily apply to all cultures and individuals. Theories must be able to be generalizable to the majority therefore individual differences must be taken into account when developing new theories. Although the theorists have been criticised for being simplistic and out-dated the ideas are very influential. The ideas from these traditional theories continue to be used as a foundation for the forthcoming theories.

Terroism Yesterday, Future & Chronology

Terrorism Introduction to Terrorism Susanne Prestininzi April 19, 2013 4:21 pm One cannot avoid long-standing debates, going back as far as Aristotle, over when it is politically and morally acceptable to use unconventional tactics such as violence and fear to bring about political and social change. History is replete with the ideas of great thinkers who believed that, under the right circumstances, unconventional tactics were not only smart, but a moral or civic duty.Religious leaders over the centuries have contributed thoughts about when unjust warfare is just, when â€Å"holy terror† is justified, and military thinkers have advocated less-than-honorable tactics. Most terrorism throughout history has been directed against governments also called political or revolutionary terrorism, but terrorism can also be global or take the forms of state terrorism or state-sponsored terrorism. These latter types occur when governments turn on their own citizens, or try to stir up troub le among the citizenry of another nation.In fact, it was state terrorism that put modern use of the term â€Å"terrorism† in our English vocabulary. Title 22 of the U. S. Code, Section 2656f(d) defines terrorism as â€Å"premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience. † (National Institute of Justice) The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines terrorism as â€Å"the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives. (fbi. gov) Both definitions of terrorism share a common theme: the use of force intended to influence or instigate a course of action that furthers a political or social goal. In most cases, NIJ researchers adopt the FBI definition, which stresses methods over motivations and is generally accepted by law enforcement communities. The first story isn’t terrorism. According to the definition, is this terrorism? No, this action is not terrorism. The group who committed the action had an objective, which was to push the US out of Iraq. This is the nly trademark consistent with a terrorist activity. The target was solely a military target carrying U. S. soldiers and the terrorists employed a conventional weapon. Civilians were not targeted during this operation. Therefore, this action was a guerilla military action employed against an opposition force in a realm of conflict. These individuals were freedom fighters seeking to control their country. If I am wrong in my understanding it may be considered domestic terrorism. The second story again isn’t terrorism. This was a U. S. issile strike killed 25 people in Pakistan's North Waziristan region that signaled that Washington's use of drones against militants along the Afghan border will continue desp ite intensifying opposition from Pakistani leaders. The third one definitely is an act of terrorism by a suicide bomber terrorist. A suicide bomber steered a truck loaded with the equivalent of six tons of TNT down the airport road in Beirut, Lebanon. He plowed into the four-story barracks where more than 300 U. S. troops from a U. N. peacekeeping mission slept and detonated what the FBI called the largest non-nuclear bomb in history.This is an example of â€Å"Tactical Terror† in order for the Free Islamic Revolutionary Movement in order to bring international attention to their cause. The last story of Columbine was an act of domestic terrorism. It was an act of terrorism. However, most people wouldn't think of it as a terrorist act. Terrorism mostly has to do with political ideology; however, it’s not restricted to that. In a perverted way, the perpetrators of Columbine were making a statement, and that is terrorism. There are several different typologies of terrori sm Terrorism classified by place 1.Domestic — by residents of a country within that country 2. .International — by representatives of a country against another country 3. Non-state — extremism and revolution for its own sake 4. State-sponsored — by a government against its own people or in support of international terrorism against another government 5. Internecine — conflict that spills over into another country or fought on foreign soil Terrorism Classified by Personality Trait 1. Crazies — strong survival attitude, but not based in reality; self-centered; goals clear only to perpetrator; irrational and unpredictable; strikes at random 2.Crusaders — sacrificial, death attitude; blends politics and religion; seldom willing to negotiate; task-oriented and indifferent to risk; seeks publicity and largest group possible. 3. Criminals — strong self-preservation attitude; selfish; seeks gain and is task-oriented; avoids high risk; predictably targets small groups (Hacker 1976) Terrorism Classified by Purpose 1. Political — for ideological and political purposes 2. Nonpolitical — for private purposes or gain 3. Quasi-terrorism — skyjacking and hostage taking 4. Limited political — ideological but not revolutionary 5.Official or state — used by nation against nation or people Terrorism Classified by Target 1. Mass terror — targets general population 2. Dynastic terror — selective targeting of individuals or groups 3. Random terror — targets anybody in wrong place at wrong time 4. Focused random terror — targets specific public places frequented by opposition 5. Tactical terror — attacks government or politically attractive targets (Combs 2003) Terrorism Classified by Issue 1. Revolutionary — aims to replace the existing government by drawing out repressive responses which can be exposed as inhumane (Red Army Faction, PLO, Hizballah) 2. Political — heavily armed groups tending to be focused around supremacy, government intrusion, or religious revisionism (Aryan Nation, Posse Comitatus, Freemen) 3. Nationalist — promotes the interests of a minority or religious group that has been persecuted under majority rule (Sikh radicals, Muslim fundamentalism) 4. Cause-Based — groups devoted to a social or religious cause using violence to address their grievances (Islamic Holy War, Abortion clinic bombings) 5. Environmental — groups dedicated to slowing down development they believe is harming animals (Animal Liberation Front, Earth 1st) 6.State-sponsored — when a repressive regime forces its citizens into total obedience (Brazil, Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, Peru, Iraq, Sudan, Haiti) 7. Nuclear — outlaw states possessing nuclear threats (Libya, North Korea) 8. Genocide– when a government seeks to wipe out a minority group in its territory (Cambodia, Rwanda, Bosnia, Iraq, Tur key) Reference Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century Cynthia C. COmbs www. nij. com www. cia. gov Retrieved: April 19, 2013 3:12 pm You +1'd this publicly. Undo

Problems of Unemployment in India Essay

India as a nation is faced with massive problem of unemployment. Unemployment can be defined as a state of worklessness for a man fit and willing to work. It is a condition of involuntary and not voluntary idleness. Some features of unemployment have been identified as follows: 1.The incidence of unemployment is much higher in urban areas than in rural areas. 2.Unemployment rates for women are higher than those for men. 3.The incidence of unemployment among the educated is much higher than the overall unemployment. 4.There is greater unemployment in agricultural sector than in industrial and other major sectors. Economists and social thinkers have classified unemployment into various types. Generally unemployment can be classified in two types: (1) Voluntary unemployment In this type of unemployment a person is out of job of his own desire doesn’t work on the prevalent or prescribed wages. Either he wants higher wages or doesn’t want to work at all. It is in fact social problem leading to social disorganization. Social problems and forces such as a revolution, a social upheaval, a class struggle, a financial or economic crisis a war between nations, mental illness, political corruption mounting unemployment and crime etc. threaten the smooth working of society. Social values are often regarded as the sustaining forces of society. They contribute to the strength and stability of social order. But due to rapid social change new values come up and some of the old values decline. At the same time, people are not is a position to reject the old completely and accept the new altogether. Here, conflict between the old and the new is the inevitable result which leads to the social disorganization in imposed situation. In economic terminology th is situation is voluntary unemployment. (2) In voluntary unemployment In this type of situation the person who is unemployed has no say in the matter. It means that a person is separated from remunerative work and devoid of wages although he is capable of earning his wages and is also anxious to earn them. Forms and types of unemployment according to Hock are. a.Cyclical unemployment – This is the result of the trade cycle which is a part of the capitalist system. In such a system, there is greater unemployment and when there is depression a large number of people are rendered unemployed. Since such an economic crisis is the result of trade cycle, the unemployment is a part of it. b.Sudden unemployment – When at the place where workers have been employed there is some change, a large number of persons are unemployed. It all happens in the industries, trades and business where people are employed for a job and suddenly when the job has ended they are asked to go. c.Unemployment caused by failure of Industries – In many cases, a business a factory or an industry has to close down. There may be various factors responsible for it there may be dispute amongst the partners, the business may give huge loss or the business may not turn out to be useful and so on. d.Unemployment caused by deterioration in Industry and business – In various industries, trades or business, sometimes, there is deterioration. This deterioration may be due to various factors. In efficiency of the employers, keen competitions less profit etc. are some of the factors responsible for deterioration in the industry and the business. e.Seasonal unemployment – Certain industries and traders engage workers for a particular season. When the season has ended the workers are rendered unemployed. Sugar industry is an example of this type of seasonal unemployment. The problem of unemployment has becoming a colossal. Various problems have caused this problem. There are individual factors like age, vocational unfitness and physical disabilities which restrict the people. External factors include technological and economic factors. There is enormous increase in the population. Every year India adds to her population afresh. More than this every year about 5 million people become eligible for securing jobs. Business field is subject to ups and downs of trade cycle and globalization. Economic depression or sick industries are often close down compelling their employees to become unemployed. Technological advancement contributes to economic development .But unplanned and uncontrolled growth of technology is causing havoc on job opportunities. The computerization and automation has led to technological unemployment. Strikes and lockouts have become inseparable aspect of the industrial world today. Due to these industries often face economic loses and production comes down. Since workers do not get any salary or wages during the strike period they suffer from economic hardships. They become permanently or temporarily unemployed. Today young people are not ready to take jobs which are considered to be socially degrading or lowly. Our educational system has its own irreparable defects and its contribution to the unemployment is an open truth.Our education does not prepare the minds of young generation to become self-employed on the contrary it makes them dependent on government vacancies which are hard to come. Our State right from the beginning of Five year plans has introduced several employment generating schemes and programmes over the years but in the absence of proper implementation and monitoring have failed to achieve the required targets. Recently UPA Government has come up with Rural Employment Guarantee program which aims to provide minimum days of employment to people living in the villages. This is a laudable programme if implemented sincerely because it will provide employment to people during natural calamities like drought, floods etc. The remedial measures for reducing unemployment may lay greater emphasis on creation of opportunities for self -employment, augmentation of productivity and income levels of the working poor, shift in emphasis from creation of relief type of employment to the building up of durable productive assets in the rural areas and instead of attempting to revert somewhat to protectionist policies the pace of privatization may be accelerated.

A Repeat of Japanese American Internment in the Post 9/11 Era Essay

The Japanese American Internment during the World War II reminds us of the bigotry and racial prejudice of our nation towards other races. It shows the disastrous effects bigotry and racial prejudice can bring to innocent people. It has happened before and it is happening again now. This essay examines how and why the most cherished rights of American and non-American citizens nowadays are being taken from them similar to what happened to the Japanese Americans more than six decades ago. Before World War II even began, many American farmers were already jealous of the success of the Japanese farmers. Because of their superior farming techniques they were able to earn twice as much as their American counterparts. (Jennifer Radcliffe 1) As a result, many foreign-born Japanese were not given the opportunity to own lands. The Anti-Japanese sentiment began to reach its peak on December 7, 1941 when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. The racist hatred against the foreign-born Japanese and even those born in the United States began to intensify. Baseless accusations and rumors spread that the Japanese-Americans were running secret operations in support of the Japanese government. (â€Å"The Internment of Japanese Americans† 2) Newspaper columnists suggested that the Japanese Americans living within certain areas be removed for the protection of the United States. On February 19, 1942, Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt, after a recommendation coming from the congressional delegation, signed Executive Order No. 9066 which authorized the creation of military areas for the purpose of protecting the country against espionage and sabotage. It immediately called for the removal of all persons with Japanese ancestry from the west coast of the United States. It was estimated that around 110,000 Japanese Americans were held captive. More than 2/3 of these were American citizens of the United States and over half were children. (â€Å"World War II Roundup: Overview† 1) The instruction given to them was to bring only those they can carry and leave everything behind. Because of the short notice, they were forced to sell all of their properties for a very small amount. Their rights were denied to them and they were forced to live for 2 to 3 years at hastily built internment camps which were initially used as prison camps. The materials were made out of wood and situated in desolate and unsanitary places. Because more than 120,000 people relocated, the internment camps were overcrowded. The rooms were very small giving no opportunity for privacy for the women internees. Most of the refugees, even women and children, had to sleep on the floor. Food was rationed to the internees at a budget of a very small amount. Indeed, life was difficult and burdensome inside these internment camps. In 1988, a formal apology was already issued by the American government to those who were placed inside the Japanese American Internment camps. Reparations for the damage caused had already been granted to the victims. The American government apologetically promised that this incident will never happen again in the future. It is likely that this exact incident of rounding up hundreds of thousands of people and transporting them to different internment camps all over the county may never happen again in the future. It would be outrageous and absurd for the US government to repeat the same mistake it had committed more than six decades ago. But it does not mean that there will be no more violation of rights and civil liberties. In the era of mass hysteria against terrorism, people start to wonder and ask is it possible for the gross and blatant violation of civil liberties to happen in the near future? It is highly possible that rights will be trampled upon and civil liberties will be sacrificed, all in the name of national security. The targets now are no longer the Japanese or the Japanese Americans but our Muslim brothers and sisters from Arab countries and even American citizens as well. We will not be placed in internment camps for sure but our privacy will be invaded, our internet communications and phone lines will be monitored, our mails will be investigated and our bank accounts will be checked. The law giving legitimacy to the violation of rights is no longer Executive Order No. 9066 but the USA Patriot Act. On the part of the government, they think that these acts are justified in view of the new threats of terrorism. National security demands that hardcore surveillance operation tactics be employed. On the part of the people, the government has been taking drastic actions for the purpose of protecting us against terrorists but who will protect us from the government? Is it necessary for the protection of the public that civil liberties be sacrificed? We must be reminded of the alarming stories of the people, most of whom were of Middle Eastern descent, who were picked up by the government immediately after the 2001 World Trade Center and Pentagon attack. Most of them were detained for several days without a case being filed against them by the government. It must be stressed that even American citizens have in the past been detained in military prisons without a case being filed against them. There are countless stories all over the news about law enforcement officers in full battle gear entering certain houses in the absence of its owner for the purpose of checking their thins and looking for any evidence that can be used against them. National Security Letters are being sent to banks, internet service providers, and phone companies instructing these companies to hand over personal records of suspected terrorists. We must also include the attack against Iraq led by American and British soldiers because of alleged weapons of mass destruction which Saddam Hussein was said to have hidden in his country. Until now nothing has been found. Indeed American and non-American citizens are now being subjected to the same kind of treatment our Japanese American brothers experienced during the World War II.

Life Imitates Art, Movies Imitate Life Essay

Imagine a world where clothes were non-existent, and it did not matter if your outfit was the current flair, or if your shoes were the latest style. Our culture would halfway cease to exist. The western culture puts so much emphasis on fashion, our lives begin to move and mold themselves around it. Fashion is like art on the body, and making a masterpiece out of what you wear. â€Å"From the materials employed in clothing manufacture to the process by which our garments are made to the social values that dictate what we â€Å"should† look like, fashion has surrounded us and consumed us for generations. (Shmoop Editorial Team 2008) A perfect example of popular culture can be revealed in American Fashion. This is impeccably displayed in the motion picture, based on the novel written by Lauren Weisberger, produced by Wendy Finerman, The Devil Wears Prada. The basic plot of the movie and novel is about a plain jane, just out of college, smart, not fashion savvy, woman (Andrea Sachs) who applies for a job as junior assistant to the editor-in-chief (Miranda Priestly), at a fashion icon magazine â€Å"Runway†, in New York and gets it. She is told repeatedly â€Å"a million girls would die for [her] job† (Finerman, 2006) and if she lasts a year, she will be able to get a job at any magazine. Andrea, in her own way is a counterculture of the people at Runway magazine in the movie. She deviates from the norm of the fashion and mainstream subculture. She tolerates their demanding ways, and demeaning comments of her diet and style, until she breaks and gives in and asks for help. She is given a makeover, by the art director, Nigel, and her new style and job begin to strain her relationship with her boyfriend and her friends. The few scenes that depict her break down and her makeover, is when people begin to notice her, and treat her better once she is wearing the latest fashion. Her hair was cut and styled, she started to watch what she ate, and shaped herself into a fashionista. She began to adapt to their standards, and dressing. She sticks with the job and increasingly spends more time working, whilst climbing the career ladder. This is set perfectly with our commercial culture and the ideology of humans and how our world works. Andrea was a non-conformist in the beginning and frowned upon because she did not wear the latest fall fashion. Once she started to wear the clothes, and shoes, she became well liked. She ultimately conformed to the fashion world. While at a benefit, Andrea ends up being Miranda’s saving grace and is offered to take the other assistants (Emily) spot to Paris. Andrea refused at first, in fear of hurting Emily’s feelings, and is forced to give in because if she does not go, Miranda will terminate her. Before leaving for Paris she takes a break from the relationship with her boyfriend. During her trip to Paris, she has relations with another writer she had met through her work and finds out about a plot to ruin her editor-in-chief. She tries to warn her and ends up finding out Miranda knew the whole time. Miranda ends up fixing her situation by double-crossing her art director, Nigel, and giving a job promised to him to someone else to save her job. Andrea is floored and cannot believe Miranda would do that to her friend. Miranda points out to Andrea that she already did, she did it to Emily. Right there Andrea quits, and leaves it all behind. Once Andrea returned to New York, she reunites with her boyfriend. In the conclusion, she is at a job interview when she is told her previous employer stated â€Å"she was by far her biggest disappointment, but that he would be an idiot not to hire her. † (Finerman, 2006) Throughout the entire movie Andrea is immersed in the fashion world. In the beginning of the movie there is a scene where the art director, Nigel, gives Andrea a pair of black, sling back stilettos. She at first refuses and says â€Å"I don’t think I need these. Miranda hired me, she knows what I look like. He responds â€Å"Do you? † (Finerman, 2006) This one scene indicates a perfect example of ideology. Nigel is setting the social order, because it is the norm of which the people in their occupation wear. I believe it is best stated by Shmoop University, â€Å"From our underwear to our Levi’s to our sneakers, what we wear has, for centuries, spoken volumes about who we are, what we do, and what we want. Whether Americans have dressed to make a political statement, to assert their class status, or simply to be irreverent, every style has carried a certain social meaning. (Shmoop Editorial Team 2008) The entire movie is immersed in popular culture and culturalism. In every scene there is examples of mass culture, commercial culture. It can even be said that ethical egoism is also expressed in the film. Ethical egoism, in short, is the view that perhaps not all persons seek their own self-interest but all should do so (Lee Archie and John G Archie, 2003). This is best represented when Miranda betrays Nigel in the end, in order to retain her job. She may not have had ill intentions and most likely did not want to make that decision, but in the end for her own self-interest, she made someone else sacrifice for her. The film reflects attitudes of our American Society. It depicts how simple a dress can make and transform a woman. Another movie and television series that is popular and uses fashion to influence, is â€Å"Sex in the City. † The show would emphasize certain brands, names, and styles and it caused a massive explosion of commercial paraphernalia. It clearly articulates how fashion matters in our day to day lives. Some people would like to disagree, but we even base our terms and language on fashion. â€Å"Terms like â€Å"white collar† and â€Å"blue collar† connote not just a line of work but a person’s class status, and remind us that we tend to make assumptions about a person’s income, line of work, and social position based on the way he or she dresses. † (Shmoop Editorial Team 2008) Regardless of your gender, sexuality, race, religion, pop culture exists in your life more than you know.

Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Lab Report Example Finally the volumetric efficiency was found to be 60%. It is important to point out that the torque of the engine is dependent on the speed at which the engine turns and it is normally expressed in revolutions per minute (rpm). The curve of the power torque graph for the polo engine slopes smoothly and increases steadily as the revolutions per minute increase. The relationship of torque versus the engine is non linear. This relationship is provided as curve as shown on the torque curve. The exact shape and the height of the curve is specific for each engine type and this is normally determined by engine tests. The curve peaks at approximately 4000 rpm with a torque of about 90.3 N/M. The curves can be defined within the range of 1100-5500 rpm since that is the operating range of the polo engine. If the range is made lower than this, the engine is likely to stall while an increase would damage the engine. For energy balance to occur within the internal combustion engine, it is important that the total power generated by the brake power is kept at its peak. Energy performance is an indication of the degree at which the success of the internal combustion polo engine performs its assigned task. The total power is normally developed by the combustion of the fuel in the combustion chamber is greater than the brake power usually referred to as indicated power. This can be calculated as: The balance of the energy in the internal combustion engine will indicate that approximately 1/3 of the fuel energy that has been input is normally lost to the external environment through transfer of heat. There is also another 1/3 is available as the shaft performs its work. The heat losses must be decreased in order to improve the efficiency of the engine. 3. Exhaust smoke and other emissions: The oxides of nitrogen and any unburned carbons are an indication of the rate of efficiency of the engine. This parameter can be used

Legal Environment of Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Legal Environment of Business - Essay Example The court was of the opinion that the equal protection clause does not prohibit use of race in admission decisions to obtain education benefits from diversity. Barbara Grutter, a white Michigan resident, applied to the Law School in 1996 but was denied admission despite having the requisite scores, 3.8 GPA and 161 LSAT score. She filed suit against the Law School, which respondents racially discriminated against her in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment. The district court held that the Law Schools racial considerations were unlawful because the interest in diversity was not compelling and, even if it were, the policy "had not narrowly tailored its use of race to further that interest." Also, the district court granted Grutters requests for relief. The United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit vacated the injunction and reversed. The appellate court held that the "use of race was narrowly tailored because race was merely a potential plus factor" and the policy was consistent with Justice Powells opinion in Regents of University of California v. Bakke. The Supreme Court of the United States granted certiorari and affirmed the appellate decision. Chief Justice Rehnquist, Justice Kennedy, Justice Scalia, and Justice Thomas, all dissented with the argument that system at the university was unconstitutional, thinly veiled and against the fourth amendment act. As stated by Chief Justice Rehnquist the percentage of African American applicants closely mirrored the percentage of African American applicants that were accepted. The concern of Powell for individual consideration, which the Court adopted in Grutter’s case, is ironically with an argument against minority preference. Those opposed to minority preference maintain that American society has traditionally been extremely meritocratic, focusing on individual merit and true potential of applicants. Also, since all races must be